Measuring militarisation is complex. Since 2003 and retrospectively up to 1990, BICC has been measuring militarisation worldwide with the Global Militarisation Index (GMI). The GMI’s approach is resource-based and measures the level of militarisation of a society by its allocation of... more
Exit programmes differ in their approaches depending on who is running them and who their target groups are. This BICC Working Paper develops an analytical framework to compare the different programmes, based on both a comprehensive literature review and interviews with practitioners. It takes into... more
Between 2013 and 2019, more than 1,000 mostly young people left Germany to join jihadist groups in Syria and Iraq. BICC Working Paper 1\2021 addresses the question of how to counter the security threat posed by these returnees. Among other things, Germany is pursuing the path of resocialisation:... more
The community-based conservation model is an increasing phenomenon in Kenya, especially in northern pastoralist counties. In BICC Working Paper 3\2020 the author Kennedy Mkutu considers dimensions of inclusion and exclusion and subsequent conflicts around community based conservancies in Isiolo... more
Prevention against Islamist radicalisation is still an important policy field in North Rhine-Westphalia. But what is the current state of affairs from the perspective of those who work in prevention locally? Where do local advisors on prevention, teachers, social workers, representatives of local... more
Putting the humanitarian–development nexus into practice, aid organisations and donors pay most attention to camp populations in protracted refugee situations (PRS). In BICC Working Paper 1\2020 the author Markus Rudolf argues that synergies arise when development aid redefines and expands the area... more
For several decades now, Germany has become home to significant numbers of Afghans, and more recently Syrians, who have fled war. In this Working Paper, the authors Esther Meininghaus and Katja Mielke analyse the political engagement for peace by Afghans and Syrians in Germany since the beginning... more
As synthesis report of the research project "Protected rather than protracted" BICC Working Paper 10\2019 provides key insights and recommendations for development cooperation. The project’s approach of analysing protracted displacement through the perspectives and experiences of the... more
This Working Paper assesses how humanitarian and development aid agencies address individuals whose human rights and human dignity have been affected by displacement. It proposes a fresh look at how to measure needs that arise in such situations. To this end, the Paper evaluates... more
Sierra Leone is known for the successful reintegration of a high number of returning refugees and internally displaced people (IDPs), many of whom had stayed in protracted displacement situations during the eleven years of a most cruel internal war. The war was intertwined with... more
Pastoral counties of northern Kenya are expected to undergo massive change in the coming years due to the government’s ambitious infrastructural development agenda. However, the area frequently experiences violence as a result of conflict between pastoralist communities, and also due to... more
Since the failed coup attempt by parts of the Turkish military against President Erdogan in summer 2016, the Turkish government has suspended more than 100,000 civil servants on the pretext of having planned a coup. For fear of persecution and arbitrary imprisonment, about 21,000 Turkish citizens... more
BICC Working Paper 5\2019 by Simone Christ analyses integration processes of refugees in Germany, particularly taking the situation in North Rhine-Westphalia into account. The Working Paper is based on almost two years of field research that includes expert interviews, interviews with displaced... more
Jordan, with a population of about ten million, hosts 1.3 million Syrians of whom 670,000 are UNHCR-registered refugees, as well as nearly 85,000 registered refugees from other countries and is thus one of the countries with the highest proportion of refugees in the world. Most of them (83 per... more
This Working Paper argues that conflicts in refugee shelters in Germany can largely be attributed to structural causes. These include the asylum regime, the interplay between the physical layout and social relationships within refugee shelters, and the specific properties of the refugee... more
Uganda hosts the largest refugee population in Africa and is, after Turkey and Pakistan, the third-largest refugee recipient country worldwide. Political and humanitarian actors have widely praised Ugandan refugee policies because of their progressive nature: In Uganda, in contrast to many other... more
In the BICC Working Paper "Theology, Therapy or Participation? German Salafism, Radicalisation and the Search for Prevention Strategies" author Marc von Boemcken analyses research approaches to the prevention of radicalisation. According to the security authorities, the number of violent... more
This Working Paper addresses the situation of Afghans before, during and after their displacements in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran. Its aim is: (1) to under- stand how internally displaced lower-class Afghans, refugees who have returned and Afghan refugees staying in... more
Multi-party elections and the signing of a Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA) in 2015 raised hopes in the international community of a possible settlement of Myanmar’s protracted conflict and one of the world’s worst protracted displacement situations (PDS) in the near future. Yet conflicts in... more
In Working Paper 7\2017, the author Marc von Boemcken analyzes the evolution of Conversion Studies from the Cold War to the post-Cold War period and discusses some of the reasons for the demise of the discipline in the new millennium. Based on a consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of... more
BICC Working Paper 6\2017 “Making sense of Daesh in Afghanistan: A social movement perspective” builds on a ten-month fieldwork-based research project conducted in four regions—east, west, northeast and north Afghanistan—during 2016. The authors Katja Mielke and Nick Miszak analyze so-called... more
With the aim of identifying the challenges of and motives for conflict-sensitive employment, the authors Elke Grawert (BICC) and Fazalrabi Shirzad (The Liaison Office, TLO) present a qualitative study on construction and transport companies in Afghanistan, based on interviews with company owners... more
This Working Paper focuses on transporters, i. e. hauliers, as important actors in the border areas between Afghanistan and its neighbours Pakistan and Iran. The transport sector is sensitive to market fluctuations and a volatile business environment, reacting strongly with increasing or declining... more
Germany's shelter system for refugees differs between its 16 federal states; this study focuses on the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), which hosts the highest number of refugees who have entered Germany thus far. Using a qualitative approach, the study conducted by BICC researchers... more
Asia and the Pacific region are particularly affected by displacement: 3.8 million people are under the mandate of the UNHCR and millions of these are internally displaced people (IDPs). The causes of displacement in Asia are multiple and go well beyond what is covered by the... more
“Conflict-sensitivity” is a catchword that addresses business practices in environments of armed conflict. The United Nations Global Compact and international finance institutions are devoting efforts into convincing companies to comply with principles aiming to provide the private sector with a... more
In BICC Working Paper 7\2016 Heidrun Bohnet investigates the challenges South Sudanese returnees and displaced persons face from their very own perspective. Building on field research in the autumn and winter of 2015, the author analyses the patterns of return and coping strategies of returnees, as... more
Past attempts at security sector reform (SSR) and disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) in South Sudan have made no significant contribution to ‘right-sizing’ the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) and were unable to sustainably change South Sudan’s security apparatus. Taking into... more
In cooperation with researchers in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, BICC (Bonn International Center for Conversion) is conducting a three-year research project on everyday security practices in Central Asia, which is funded by the Volkswagen Foundation. The project was launched in July 2015. While... more
There are still large deficiencies in small arms and light weapons (SALW) and conventional ammunition (CA) storage and management in the Great Lakes Region, the Horn of Africa and bordering states. Particularly state capacities to plan and implement physical security and stockpile management (PSSM)... more
This Working Paper examines military interventions by precision strikes from a distance as a means to avoiding ground combat with own troops. A prominent strand of the literature argues that this is a particularly Western phenomenon; a consequence of the casualty aversion of democratic states and... more
The Greater Sahel region has never experienced such a high-level of arms availability. Given the large array of efforts now in place across the region to stem the proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALW), it is pertinent to take stock, assess who is doing what, and reflect on... more
The proliferation and trafficking of small arms and light weapons (SALW) in Africa is partly attributable to weak national controls, the porosity of state borders, and ongoing armed conflict on the continent. To address these problems a number of initiatives have been undertaken by states, regional... more
This Paper reviews the current state of the art on the return of displaced persons as a durable solution for long-term displacement situations. It outlines the impact, challenges and actors involved in the return process. The Paper shows that present understandings of return, protracted situations... more
Precluding conflict financing through the minerals sector has come to be seen as the panacea to ending conflicts in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The US Dodd-Frank-Act (2010) and European draft legislation attempt to reduce the financing of armed groups in conflict zones by... more
From 2011 until 2014, BICC worked with the government of South Sudan to improve the management of state-owned arms and ammunition. In BICC Working Paper 1\ 2014 Luuk van de Vondervoort evaluates this BICC advisory project on state-owned arms control. The difficulties related to improving arms... more
The (renewed) rise of China has been one of the central topics in international politics since the 1990s. This development brings along a number of far-reaching regional and global consequences. A comprehensive maritime rearmament—not only by China itself but also its immediate neighbors and other... more
The Global Militarization Index (GMI) of BICC (Bonn International Center for Conversion) presents the militarization of a country and thus shows developments and processes in resource allocation of a given country. It can be used as a tool for assessing the relationship between military to... more
This Occasional Paper analyzes the photographic reporting of the German daily newspapers Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (FAZ) and Süddeutsche Zeitung (SZ) about the Gaza war (2008/2009).This paper is based on the assumption that photographic reporting as photojournalistic war photography represents... more
The paper begins with a discussion of the possible negative consequences of oil exploitation in developing countries, often referred to as resource curse, introducing the analytical framework of the ‘petro-state’ (Section 1). In order to assess the relevance of revenue transparency for addressing... more
The main purpose of this Occasional Paper is to provide a humanitarian perspective to the ongoing debate about PRTs as a role model for civil-military relations. It will analyze the security dilemma in Afghanistan and the impact of the PRTs on the delivery of humanitarian aid. It will further... more
This Occasional Paper focuses on the analysis of individual measures fostering democratic peace consolidation in Sierra Leone. Following a theoretical introduction, the political history of Sierra Leone is described briefly. The main part consists of the presentation and evaluation of the... more
A historical perspective, as proposed by this Occasional Paper, might illuminate one of the underlying roots of conflict and state failure and might also help address central problems to conflict resolution in Somalia. It is the thesis of this Paper that in the fertile riverine areas of southern... more
On 4 December 2008, the Bonn International Center for Conversion (BICC) and Deutsche Welle jointly organized a half-day conference on the nuclear dispute with Iran in Bonn, entitled “After the Elections in the United States: New Chances for a Compromise in the Nuclear Dispute with Iran?” With the... more
In recent months, NATO has approached member states with a request to redeploy several AWACs (Airborne Warning and Control) planes, currently based in Geilenkirchen, Germany, in support of air operations in Afghanistan. BICC, building on previous experience in Afghanistan, addresses two issues in... more
The port of Hamburg is the largest port in Germany, the third-largest port in Europe and, as the second largest container terminal in Europe, is one of the nine largest container terminals in the world (Deutsche Verkehrs-Zeitung, 2001). This study offers a comprehensive insight into the job... more
Most experts agree that sustainable peace consolidation demands more than a mere end of violence. Besides the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) of ex-combatants and the re-establishment of national security and the state monopoly of violence it also needs the establishment and... more
The modern, complex industrialized states of the West are faced with multi-faceted challenges with regard to their overall national security, especially since 9/11 2001 and the following terrorist attacks in Europe: international terrorism, organized crime, drugs- and human trafficking, political... more
For many developing countries, the extraction of natural resources has been a blessing, as their export can provide urgently needed development capital. For others, however, resource wealth has been a curse, as their population still faces extreme poverty and they have been haunted by corruption,... more
This synopsis on ‘resources and conflict’ presents 16 contemporary cases in which large projects from the areas of the extractive industries (oil, gas, and mining), logging and water management have led to violent or violence-prone conflicts. The synopsis comprises the core variables that determine... more
Violent conflict around the extraction of natural resources characterizes everyday life in many resource-rich development countries. In particular in countries, where state structures are weak and where deficits in resource governance exist, a specific constellation of controversial extraction... more
The BP Tangguh gas project in the Indonesian province of (West) Papua is the currently largest development project in Indonesia. Situated in Bintuni Bay in the west of New Guinea, BP intends to extract natural gas from offshore gas fields, liquefy it on land and export it to customers such as China... more
This study presents the concept of UN integrated peace missions and, by looking at three examples, analyzes its practical implementation. The missions under review (mission in Haiti—MINUSTAH; in Sudan—UNMIS, and in Liberia—UNMIL) show that the concept is applied differently with varying degrees of... more
The cocoa trade from Côte d’Ivoire, the country’s main commodity has played a major role in the four-and-a-half-years of armed conflict. Over US $118 million revenues from the cocoa trade flowed into the conflict by funding both the government and the rebel group ‘Forces Nouvelles (FN)’ in the... more
The issue 'diaspora' is seeing a revival in political discussion today. One of the factors determining this revival is the debate on improving the chances of integration for migrants; another one is the discussion on the challenges arising from the increasing influx of people from poor countries... more
The short formula “Development needs security, security needs development” describes experiences made in the past few years. Just a few years ago, it would have been just as unthinkable to resort to the expertise and resources of development policy for originally military measures as to enroll... more
Most experts agree today, that peace and stability are an absolute necessity for development and that vice versa, development is an absolute necessity for the sustainability of peace and stability. This nexus between development and extended security is mirrored both in the overall concept... more
This concept paper puts forward a theoretical model for identifying and classifying types of causes of militant behavior. This model is intended to help improve the structure of pro-active prevention measures. BICC is thus providing a methodical contribution to identifying how a policy of crisis... more
This analysis attempts to sum up and compare existing mechanisms in OECD member states for early warning and the prevention of crises. Based on this analysis, the comparative advantages of single measures are to be presented. At the same time, recommendations for future engagement will be... more
This short study aims to stake out the options for better capturing the implications of the growing conception that development, conflict, security and peace are interdependent for the OECD DAC’s reporting system, within and outside of ODA (Official Development Assistance). It discusses various... more
The Bonn International Center for Conversion (BICC) and the Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg (IFSH) organized a panel discussion on 14 June 2006 on which international experts voiced their opinions on the conflict about the Iranian nuclear program. The... more
This paper provides an economic account of demand for small arms as a response to politicoeconomic motivations arising from polarization and rent-seeking. Polarization has already been employed in the existing literature as a measure of the potential for conflict between groups of opposing... more
The first section of the paper provides an assessment of the current state of the ‘peace’ process: Political and security-related developments of the past years are analyzed with a special focus on continuities and changes of politico-economic structures and networks of its former war economy. This... more
The conversion of the town of Wünsdorf (approx. 40 km away from Berlin) is a great challenge and important task for all involved. According to the former Minister President of the Land Brandenburg, Wünsdorf was to become the best example of how a former military site can be transformed into a newly... more
Headnotes: Concept of peace dividend and disarmament: Myth v. Reality – Recognition of the need for thorough analysis through examining the implementation of a arms control or disarmament instrument, felt in the governmental as well as research institutions – This paper, a response to such a need –... more
The aim of this work is to identify if the problems posed by the environmental degradation of the Caspian Sea could be such an issue. The results of cooperation on environmental issues would be twofold. First it would ensue direct action against the large-scale ecological degradation, protection... more
From 1–2 March 2004, the Center for Development Research (ZEF) and the Bonn International Center for Conversion (BICC) hosted an International Expert Workshop on “Water, Development and Cooperation – Comparative Perspective: Euphrates-Tigris and Southern Africa” in Bonn, Germany. Experts from the... more
This paper aims at giving an overview of EU sanctions during the time period leading up to the first programmatic document on sanctions policy in June 2004. There are several reasons for why such an approach is valuable both for the research on European integration and for the international... more
In this paper, the reader will first find a short description of the history of the Cyprus conflict (Chapter II) and of the Annan Then, as security worries were one of the main reasons for Greek Cypriots to reject the Annan Plan, the security perceptions of Greek and Turkish Cypriots are analysed... more
Paper 43 is a result of a cooperation between the Colombian foundation “Ideas para la Paz”, the Universidad de los Andes, and the Bonn International Center for Conversion (BICC), which started in 2002 at a conference in Bogota entitled “Voces y opciones del desarme: Enseñanzas adquiridas de la... more
This report has been written to reflect some of the debates between different actors and partners involved in the process of demobilization and reintegration of former combatants in Afghanistan, and to examine the planning, coordination and early implementation of UNICEF’s program to demobilize and... more
One outcome of this study is that such an accumulation of weapons also poses dangers in times of peace. They threaten the environment and represent a high risk to security, particularly in view of the activity of international terrorist groups. The disposals of such weapons necessitates a... more
The eastward enlargement of the EU is accompanied by the accession of four new member states from Central and Eastern Europe, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia, as well as the inclusion of Bulgaria and Romania in 2007 and the integration of their defence industry infrastructures into... more
The overall aim of this paper is to provide an understanding of the role external actors play in Somalia’s war economy. To achieve this, the study will take a close look at the impact of international economic agents; that is, individuals, groups of people, corporations and institutions based... more
The following short case studies will present and discuss readily available information on deficits in the planning, programming implementation and control of military expenditures in the East- African countries of Ethiopia, Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.The case studies are structured as... more
In the political arena, the revenue from oil had a direct impact on the delicate balance of military power between the Government of Sudan and its principal enemy, the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA). This report analyzes how the funds from the oil boom have allowed the government side to buy... more
The objectives of this paper are primarily four-fold. First, the paper will examine critical aspects of defence-industrial policies adopted by India in the past and link those to performance. It will examine the factors that have influenced India’s defence production and their co-relationship with... more
The purpose of this study is to explore the complex relationship between refugees and arms diffusion. It examines the nature and extent of refugee involvement in small arms diffusion by analysing refugees’ demand for small arms and how their crossborder movements lead to the circulation of arms.... more
This paper deals with legal aspects of European Security and Defence Policy, and particularly the interpretation of Art. 296 of the Amsterdam Treaty1 (formerly 223 of the Rome Treaty) allowing “for the protection of the essential interests of its security which are connected with the production of... more
In 2002 the authors were asked to, and duly submitted, a report to the European Parliament’s Committee on Foreign Affairs, Human Rights, Common Security and Defense Policy entitled ‘Equipment for EU Crisis Management’ (Pullinger, Quille, Mawdsley et al, 2003). That report overviewed the pertinent... more
Often, in the debate about globalization, a cross-border integration of national markets is highlighted and, from this, a new quality of the world market is being deduced. This study investigates whether this also holds true for the markets in defense equipment. Even though cross-border linkages of... more
Defense industrial policy is increasingly playing a role in this debate as the need to tackle armaments policy in a more European framework became clear. Is a European defense industrial policy emerging? Who or what are the factors driving it? Are the developments moving in the right direction?... more
While base conversion is, even in the best of circumstances, a long and complicated process, the municipalities and regions affected by the problem in CEE countries have had to face a number of additional difficulties. Especially in the first few years of the 1990s, base conversion had to be... more
This paper seeks to find out if an understanding of previous micro-disarmament programs could serve as the basis for policy measures that could effectively tackle the problem of small arms and their misuse in the sub-region of Central Africa. The paper attempts this by first reviewing the... more
The purpose of this research is to examine Korea’s defense aerospace industry in pursuit of a new direction. In doing so, it aims to analyze the development of Korean aircraft industry while at the same time examining the extent of Korea’s dependence on the United States and its effort to pursue... more
João Porto and Imogen Parsons have provided a vital ‘road map’ to current efforts aimed at achieving peaceful demilitarization in Angola. Through their carefully considered study of the dynamics involved in a complex phenomena – made doubly so by institutional density, shifting agendas on the part... more
It is easy to exaggerate the problem of lack of legitimacy and it is important to remember that ESDP is only a part of national defence and security policies particularly in Britain and France. There are other simpler reasons too why there is a gap between ESDP rhetoric and its reality as discussed... more
After systematically detailing the current security situation in the various regions of Afghanistan, with analyses of particularly ominous security breakdowns, this report will examine factors that have emerged in the context of the reconstruction process that have exacerbated insecurity. The... more
This study aims to provide an overview of democratic accountability aspects of the European Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF), taking into account that the development of an operational European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP) and the further fine tuning of the ERRF are part of a dynamic process. In... more
After 30 years of armed struggle for independence, Eritrea enjoyed only seven years of peace before war with neighboring Ethiopia broke out again and still is under way. In the short peaceful interval, tremendous efforts were deployed not only to rebuild the country’s material infrastructure, which... more
This paper will analyze the transformation processes in Bulgaria in order to determine which are the most influential factors leading to the sharp decline in the defense industry, and its costs—and benefits in the form of military conversion—to Bulgarian development. Secondly, it will analyze... more
Decision-making on security sectors is dominated by elites, particularly military elites, because of unequal power and knowledge relations. In strengthening the institutions of accountability it is important to give high priority to strengthening the capacity of civilians to manage and monitor the... more
This paper will consider what the gender-aware demobilization, disarmament and reintegration that is called for in the Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security, adopted by the Security Council on October 31, 2000, might look like. In it it will be shown how gender awareness in the earliest... more
On behalf of the Research and Documentation Division of the German Bundestag, BICC conducted research on the following topics: • Effects and consequences of international/inter-state agreements and contracts on arms exports, or international arms cooperation and collaboration regarding German... more
The study of any set of conversion measures should not simply be, therefore, an examination of the practical techniques used, it should also involve an appreciation of the nature of the peace process itself. In this brief overview of the measures used in Northern Ireland to release and reintegrate... more
This report lists policies and practical measures on effective small arms control recommended by various organizations and individuals.The European Commission ordered it because it wishes to implement the Council resolution of 21 May 1999. Though the report is meant for use in development policy,... more
This report suggests a framework for a country interested in assessing the scope of its military assets that have potential for transformation into peaceful, productive purposes as part of a post-conflict or structural adjustment package. This report draws no conclusions as to an optimal level of... more
The tasks of this study are to examine the historical antecedents of the Chinese military-business complex, especially the imperial, pre-1949 and Maoist periods, focusing on the similarities and differences between the earlier systems and the current system.Furthermore, the study identifies the... more
This report provides an analysis of the modern economic structure of Nizhniy Novgorod oblast and significant structural changes which took place after systemic reforms were launched with the special focus on defense industry and conversion. Niches for actual and potential growth have been... more
The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction (CWC) is a multilateral treaty which obligates its signatories to destroy their chemical weapons within ten years of the treaty's entry into force. It also bans the... more
This Paper provides an overview of the status and problems related to nuclear submarine decommissioning worldwide. After a brief description of the history and development of the world nuclear submarine forces, it discusses the main dismantlement and disposal technologies currently used. Here, it... more
Military cutbacks in the 1990s have led to a decline in the purchase of new weapon systems: the global value of transfers of major conventional weapons, as measured by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI, 1996) fell from a peak of US $46,535 million in 1987 to US $22,797... more
Retrenchment is a byproduct of public sector reform, which in turn is a direct response to some of the early implementation problems of structural adjustment programs (SAP). It has received much less attention than public sector reform (PSR) as donors, policy makers and researchers have tended to... more
It has become widely recognized that defense conversion is not merely a theory, but a practical policy instrument and process requiring planning and management. Accordingly, practical guidelines for implementing successful conversion policies are necessary, and this study seeks to support that aim... more
This Paper reviews reductions in armed forces and opposition forces of Central American countries and the context of each demobilization experience. A brief background of the Central American peace process and the resolution of conflicts in Nicaragua and El Salvador will illustrate how a trend... more
The ultimate objective of all demobilization and reintegration efforts should be to improve the welfare of people. At the same time, people and their capabilities are considered an important means and instrument in achieving the various economic, social and political objectives of the... more
From 19 to 21 May 1996, representatives of sixteen countries and five international organizations (see attached participants list) met at the Gästehaus Petersberg in Bonn, Germany, to discuss ongoing and future efforts in the dismantlement and destruction of nuclear, chemical and conventional... more
The mixed conscript/professional army in the Netherlands with its high dependence on mobilization was transformed into a professional-only army after 1996. The large amounts of equipment necessary under the old standing army and mobilization system were no longer required. To cope with a then... more
This paper, written in early 1995, is meant to provide a broad overview of conversion issues in Africa. It reviews the literature and information on conversion in Africa. It attempts to draw conclusions that may form the basis for further research about trends in military expenditure and personnel,... more
Perceptions of the Russian military–industrial complex, as they emerge from policy debates and academic literature, center around three major points. First, it is immense—the share of defense industry employment in overall industrial employment is about 25 percent. Second, the military–industrial... more
In the past, research in the area of military conversion was not a major focus of the departments in the UN Secretariat and the semi-autonomous and autonomous organizations of the United Nations system. Different perceptions of the concept of conversion by Member States blocked any initiative to... more
With the reductions of global military expenditure in recent years and the end of the East–West arms race, major opportunities for conversion exists. Conversion is often looked at as a narrow problem of retooling arms factories for civilian production. In fact, the reduction in military activity... more
